The research in this publication was completed as a part of the University of Wisconsin–Madison’s Rebecca M. Blank Center for Campus History. The Center seeks to expand and enrich UW–Madison’s historical narrative by centering the voices, experiences, and struggles of marginalized groups. The Center grew out of the Public History Project which culminated in the Sifting & Reckoning physical and digital exhibition in the fall of 2022, curricular tools, an event and lecture series, and a final report. By sharing research, we hope to continue conversations about the history of UW–Madison and discuss how we can all work towards building a more equitable campus community. The nature of historical research is that it will always be incomplete. It is impossible for us to know everything that happened in the past. Therefore, the research in this post is imperfect, as all history is. Our researchers have completed the research below with all of the historical documents available to them at the time of publication.
“If the International Club has accomplished anything since its inception in 1903, it is, perhaps, that a set of features, or a single feature, or a skin color, or a manner of speaking or gesturing, are no longer a subject of amazement on the University of Wisconsin campus”. [1]
“The allure and mystery of the East, the romance of the Latin American countries, and the charm of the European nations are captured each month as the International Club Social committee plans a large dance at which a national or topical theme is featured.” [2]
“… It is interesting to note that half the club members are Americans.” [3]
Described as one of the “most interesting clubs” on UW’s campus by the Daily Cardinal, the International Club was a prominent part of the university’s history and its many traditions in the 1900s. [4] As the above quotes suggest, this includes the university’s historical claim that it is a space of inclusion and belonging for Black, brown, and Indigenous communities, despite its persistent legacy of white supremacy. By exploring the International Club’s social events, administrative policies, and organization structure, I highlight the ambiguities and contradictions that manifested within the club.
The International Club of UW–Madison was established on March 14, 1903, by 16 international students representing 11 nationalities at the apartment of Kiyoshi Karl Kawakami, a Japanese international student.[5] The Club’s initial purpose was to provide students with a space for “formal intellectual discussions of contemporary international problems.”[6] This objective widened after 1905 to promote “ties of affection and esteem” amongst students of all nationalities by providing a space for free social and intellectual discussions.[7] Aiming to “work for a world community” against the “barriers of nationalism,” [8] the club sought to encourage mutual empathy among international and American-born students.
Keeping with their goal, the club members officially pledged to “foster the spirit of the International Club of the University of Wisconsin in promoting Brotherhood, Peace, and Human Justice among all People, irrespective of race, color, cast or creed.” [9] Their motto, “Above All Nations is Humanity,” [10] was credited to Goldwin Smith and contributed by the Cornell Chapter of the International Club to the Association of Cosmopolitan Clubs (ACC.), a collective of international clubs throughout the US and Europe formed in January 1906 of which UW–Madison’s International Club was one of the eight founding universities. Referring to themselves as Wisconsin’s International Fellowship Program or World Fellowship in Miniature, UW’s International Club organized trips to different parts of Europe during the late 1900s and early 1910s to integrate more universities into the organization. [11] As the club’s reach expanded beyond Madison, so did its membership policies. While initially restricting active memberships held by American-born individuals to no more than one-third of the entire membership of the Club, this provision was removed after 1910, even though there were “mixed feelings” about “American participation.” [12] Additionally, all people connected with the university were eligible for active membership as long as it was approved by the club Council, and they paid the club dues. [13]
Reportedly inactive during World War I, the International Club remained a member of the ACC until 1926, when the participation of other universities started waning in the aftermath of the war. The club officially became a part of the Wisconsin Union in 1933, which gave the president of the club voting privileges as a member of the Union Directorate. In addition to the president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer of the club, active members elected directors who would chair committees that were responsible for organizing social events and funding, managing media, outreach, networking, and wellbeing of the students. Leadership was determined by yearly elections. The club decreed that no more than two individuals representing one nation could hold a director position, and only people with active membership in the club could vote and hold office. The active membership was restricted to students only in the 1947 constitution. The constitution further stipulated that the president of the club could not be a US citizen. This latter provision, however, lasted merely two years and was removed in the Constitution revision of 1949. [14]
These shifting financial and membership conditions on the basis of one’s citizenship and their position at the university likely shaped the power dynamics in the club by influencing who had the dominant decision-making power. Similarly, for a significant majority of their existence, the club repeatedly advertised in their newsletters and the Daily Cardinal to request more women to participate in their weekly “Dancetime” social events because men were the overwhelming majority of international students on campus. [15] This further indicates the dominant presence of men in the club and their social events. In addition, the fact that men were predominantly featured in the photographs of the International Club Board suggests the presence of sexist prejudices about who could hold various leadership positions. [16] These gendered and racialized disparities within the club were significant because they likely shaped the club’s social events and the ways different peoples and nations were represented in them.
The International Club prided itself on being the students’ “Home away from Home.” [17] The club’s Welfare Committee was responsible for sending information to foreign students interested in coming to UW–Madison, including temporary accommodation services if desired. The Overseas Benefit Suppers Committee provided home-cooked dishes that represented different cultural cuisines “prepared and served by native cooks.” [18] The proceeds from these events went towards the World Student Service Fund Overseas Feeding Program to “feed needy students overseas.” [19] Reports further indicated that, when possible, the club sometimes used available funds to provide financial assistance to international students in need.[20] In addition, the Tours Committee of the club organized domestic and local informative trips to Milwaukee and Chicago, polling places on election days, and state organizations, including police courts to help familiarize students with their new environment. [21] In partnership with Madison Friends of International Students, the club helped students with transportation, securing permanent housing after they arrived, and provided them with temporary housing until they were able to do so.” [22] The club also helped establish the Wisconsin International House in the Summer of 1951 which housed both American and foreign students to demonstrate that “international living” was possible. [23] The house was, however, shut down in 1958 because of poor living conditions. [24] Seeking to use the funds allocated to them to meet the needs of international students, the International Club started sponsoring a reception center from 1962 until mid-1970. [25]
Largely funded by the Wisconsin Union for the majority of its existence, the club started reporting management issues with the Union in the early 1970s. The club became a non-voting member of the Wisconsin Union Council in December 1970, and despite multiple attempts during the next year, the Union repeatedly rejected their proposal to become a voting member. [26] This, combined with significant restructuring of the Union Directorate in 1972, meant that instead of having a direct say in how the Union allocated their funding, the club was now dependent upon a general “Foreign Interest Area” chairperson to represent and articulate the club’s needs to the Directorate. [27]
This increasing lack of power translated to a scarcity of funding during the final years of the club and little control over what programs they could offer. [28] For instance, in a fall 1971 issue of the Cardinal, the club critiqued the Union over cuts in funding. [29] The Union increased its budget in December claiming that the cuts were an accident where “someone subtracted when there should have been an addition.” [30] However, the problem of funding seemed to have persisted at least until the mid-70s as the Union requested sponsorship and financing of the International Club in The Wisconsin Union quarterly April and May 1975. [31] It is still unclear what circumstances led to the dissolution of the club, but according to a source in the Wisconsin Alumni Magazine, it happened following their supposed involvement in campus protests during the 1970s at UW-Madison. [32]
International Students and the American Empire
According to International Student Services, international students have been a part of UW–Madison since the late 1800s. [33] This “internationality” is an “old tradition” of the university which, akin to many traditions in the US, finds its roots in the country’s history of imperialism and colonization. [34] Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, the US advanced its military and economic interests through invasions of “Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, and Guam, eastern Sāmoa, Hawai‘i, and the Philippines in the Pacific” as part of its empire-building project.[35] US officials in these territories quickly attempted to engrain American ideologies, notably by establishing social, economic, racial, and political hierarchies within different colonies. This restructuring of societies dramatically reshaped the lived experiences of local communities in different ways. For instance, in the Philippines, Filipino elites were perceived as “civilized” people by American colonizers, which resulted in them occupying more positions of power and privilege, while exacerbating the oppression that other local communities endured. [36]
ca. 1950-1959. UW Archives
The presence of many nonwhite international students at UW–Madison was a product of the US empire-building project. During the early 1900s, the American government sought to demonstrate its (supposed) benevolence and bolster its perceived sense of superiority by assimilating colonized peoples through government-funded higher education in the US. [37] One such “empire-building educational program” was the Pensionado program, which started in 1903 and sent approximately 300 Filipino students to the US for higher education. [38] As people from colonized nations started migrating to the US for higher education and other opportunities, many international students were subjected to alienation and discrimination by Americans who were anxious about maintaining their “racial integrity” and the “corrosion of the national character.” [39]
The changing political dynamics in the colonies also affected how international students of color were represented in various social events organized by the UW-Madison International Club. Many social events at the club tended to homogenize and exoticize students of color, which ultimately reinforced “Orientalist” perceptions of international students. Orientalism is a theory in which imperial and colonial nations, the “Occident,” construct a misleading and false image of the people they colonize, the “Orient,” as “politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively” inferior. [40] This label of the “Orient” has historically included communities from Asia and Africa who are lumped under the “East,” “Far East,” and “Middle East” umbrella, while “Occident” historically includes countries such as the US and Britain. Orientalist narratives making a distinction between the “West” from the “Far” and “Middle” East were pervasive within the club and were a prominent and persistent theme in their social events on campus.
In perpetuating Orientalist and racist stereotypes of Black and brown international students, the club reflected and was likely influenced by the culture of white supremacy at UW–Madison. [41] The club originated at a time when racism was explicitly condoned by university officials. For instance, in the 1920s, two student organizations at UW-Madison named themselves after the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist organization that, since its establishment in 1866, has been actively involved in racially motivated terrorism against Black and indigenous people. The presence of these clubs was not only largely acceptable on campus, but their members occupied multiple leadership roles at UW-Madison, ranging from the student senate, Student Union Board, and Badger Yearbook to the Daily Cardinal and Memorial Union fund drive committee.[42] The presence of nonwhite students on campus was rarely a welcome sight for many of their white peers, who treated them with hostility. Spaces such as the International Club that allowed for the participation of nonwhite students to some extent still often promoted stereotypical representations of their cultures. And instances like a 1911 Badger yearbook’s depiction of the International Club with a “racist cartoon of an aboriginal man by a fire” suggests how even the limited inclusion of international students of color in campus life offered by the club was an unwelcome sight for many white.[43]
Differential Inclusion Through Assimilation Into Whiteness
Assimilation Through Exceptionalizing Differences
Organizers of social events by the International Club often relied upon Orientalist narratives to assimilate international students of color within the white middle-class culture of the campus. [44] They did so by portraying these students and their cultures as alien, “out of place,” and a site of fascination. In many ways, their sense of belonging on campus was dependent on white people learning oversimplified and stereotypical accounts of their culture and then learning to “tolerate” them. The club’s very popular semi-annual National Nights exemplify this. These events featured a particular country or colony aimed to capture “the allure and mystery of the East, the romance of the Latin American countries, and the charm of the European nations.” [45] The club claimed that this was to “help transport one to another land” and promote understanding of their “problems, aspirations, viewpoints, and peculiarities.” [46] In doing so, the club promoted stereotypical representations of brown communities, whether intentionally or not, in the name of fostering intercultural empathy.
News reports by the Daily Cardinal about the “Cosmopolitan Carnival Party” and the “Cosmopolitan Revue” organized by the club in 1921 further demonstrate the role of these social events in promoting the perception of Black people as exotic. [47] On both occasions, the club depicted hunting animals as characteristic of communities from South Africa. For instance, the Cosmopolitan Revue featured “Lion Hunting in South Africa” which included “weird hunting songs of the blacks.” [48] The use of the word “weird” in the reporting further perpetuates negative and exoticized viewpoints of non-Western traditions and customs by presenting them as a deviation from what’s considered “normal.” This promoted hostility and aversion towards Black people. Even if the club did not choose how the Cardinal article framed the various acts, as organizers of the event, it was still responsible for ensuring appropriate reporting. So, either the club favored these inaccurate and racist characterizations of Africa, or they chose to ignore them. Either way, the club remained silent as the Cardinal promoted racist ideas about Africans and their members.
The International Club sought to promote mutual understanding between students on campus and educate them about the different cultural practices of white and non-white international students. They aimed to help create the “beautiful world” in which humanity is united and “raises its gaze towards perfection” by seeking to “embody in his personality the richness of the best contributed by the different races.” [49] Recognizing the existence of differences between white students and students of color, members of the club were urged to “wear off the rough edges of our natures which make us so provincial or touchy about ‘curious mannerisms.’” [50] These quotes illustrated how the club’s social events explicitly promoted the perception of the world as being divided into the global north, “Western world,” and global south non-Western world. In this worldview, the Occident determines and knows what is the “best” that can be offered by each race. The excerpt embodies a common element of interwar America: the differences of immigrants were attempted to be subsumed within a “melting pot” ideology. This melting pot aimed to erode the values, cultures, languages, and experiences of different ethnic groups to form a singular American identity. For liberals, this melting pot ideology sought to incorporate immigrants within American society, but on American terms. And for racist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, which had a known presence on UW’s campus, their experiences were perceived as a direct threat to American society. Black and brown international students faced a double-edged sword. On one hand, they were considered otherworldly, exotic, and a sight of allurement. Yet, any sense of pride and belonging to their nation was characterized as being “provincial,” something they should aim to polish away or overcome for the sake of assimilating into the club. The “perfection” that the club strived for was a white-Anglo identity where racism and xenophobia subsumed pluralism under the guise of unity.
Assimilation Through Containing Differences
One way in which the International Club undermined the differences amongst their members was through its official language policy. Seven years after its establishment, they specified English in their constitution of 1910 as the club’s official language. [51] Language is a crucial aspect of identity, and spaces that undermine its value reinforce the idea that belonging is contingent upon one’s willingness to assimilate, i.e. speak English only. Standardizing an official language is a political act that serves to homogenize communities by erasing linguistic differences. The English-only policy highlights important questions about the nature of the club: Why was there a need to implement such a policy? How was it enacted? What did its formalization in the club’s constitution indicate to students who were multilingual? Why did the club remove the provision from the 1931 constitution? [52]
The club also likely reinforced assimilation during their Friendship Hour events. These were typically an “informal cultural program” held weekly at the Wisconsin Union and open to all students at UW. The events sought to facilitate relationships and mutual understanding amongst international students and their American peers. While it was usually a common get-to-know-each-other type of gathering, many Friendship Hours were organized to discuss particular political topics of contention and/or interest amongst students, which came up during regular friendship because “heated discussions… seemed out of place in the friendly atmosphere there.” [53] Enabling active participation from the audience, these events typically took the form of a live debate or lecture by a professor at the university, followed by a Q&A. For instance, one of their debate forums held in November 1921 considered “Is the question of the limitation of armaments practicable?” [54] Later that month, the club wired a resolution to the “Disarmament conference” in Washington and to Warren G. Harding, the then president of the United States, indicating their support for arm restrictions. They believed that doing so would help them fully realize their motto of “Above all nations is humanity.” [55]
Disregarding their role in perpetuating orientalism and racism, the club sought to create its ideal version of the world. This attitude appears to have shifted a little after the 1950s when they became (more) actively involved in the different anti-colonial and independence movements. Club members organized talks about Apartheid in South Africa and collaborated with the African Union to sponsor a party to celebrate the eve of the independence of Nigeria from British colonial rule. The club helped curate a celebration that featured a lecture about the independence, followed by an “African drum music and dancing by a group from Chicago” floorshow. [56] This awareness surrounding the movement for Nigerian independence, however, did not stop the club from continuing to use racist language to describe some of their social events. At the same time, they tried to address issues of racial injustice, as highlighted in their March 15, 1954, issue of FOCUS, the club’s newsletter:
American: We are not proud of the practice of discrimination, but we are sure that eventually the problem will solve itself.
Asian: Eventually we are all dead. In the meantime the cancer of racism is “acute and widespread” in the U.S. It is a danger to social progress in America and threatens to “undermine the value of democratic civilization as a force in world affairs”…
American: Aren’t you exaggerating?
Asian: No. I am merely quoting Professor Louis Wirth, the chief of the Univ. of Chicago’s race relations study. He and his group of scholars hope to find some solution.
Russian: I don’t think they will… The American political-economic system is obsolete and incapable of solving its problem. [57]
The excerpt is a reprinted version of a dialogue from the PMNewspaper, August 18, 1947, written by Saul K. Padover. It enacts a conversation between an American, Asian, and Russian student about the prevalence of racism in the US. The dialogue foregrounds the typical dismissal of the prevalence of racism by calling it an exaggeration of the problem that will just “solve itself” over time, and so isn’t a large enough concern to require proactive efforts on the part of individuals and groups to address it. In a post-script to the dialogue, the International Club stated that they were “doing its share” to “solve the problem of race prejudice,” and prompted the reader to question their steps to address racism “individually or as an organization.” Simultaneously, the club emphasized their purpose for reprinting was to prompt these questions, and not because they supported the characters or their arguments. This refusal to “take a side” created distance between themselves and both the people perpetuating racism as well as communities who are actively harmed by it. This showed a lack of reflection by the club on the ways the organization perpetuated issues of race and racism. Racism is framed as something that people should be talking about, but whether the readers should be taking any actions to address it was rendered a matter of debate.
Racialized Communities of Conditional Belonging
Although it was not the sole organization for international students on campus, the social events organized by the International Club drew significant attention, receiving first-page coverage in the Daily Cardinal in many instances. In addition, the participation of international students was not just limited to the university. The club maintained relationships with communities and organizations outside of campus, which provided its members with multiple outreach opportunities. For instance, the club’s Speakers Bureau committee maintained a list of international students interested in speaking about and representing their country who could be “booked for speeches to American audiences in and around Madison” when requested. [58] In many ways, the club served as a visible marker of the presence of international students at the university and as active members of the community.
Visibility, however, is a double-edged sword for racialized peoples. An offer of invitation does not always translate to inclusion and belonging. A notable example of this was the “International Week-end” event in March 1929 which was organized by the local YMCA and YWCA. International students in the club were falsely charged with being “too aggressive in their attitude of obtaining campus recognition” by using the slogan “Get that Cosmopolitan Feeling” even though the club merely co-operated with the event directors and had no say in the creation of the slogan. [59] It is telling that Manuel Escarrilla, the then-president of the International Club, had to respond by emphasizing that students of color (referred to as students from the “Far East” in a Daily Cardinal article about the controversy) only participate in events in which they are invited, and do not just force their presence in any social events of the university. [60]
Simultaneously, the social spaces created by the club were likely quite far from perfect for international students. It is likely that the unchecked power dynamics of the club affected what forms of political expression were allowed, who was silenced, and who was allowed to dominate. The administrative policies and design of the social events indicated the dominant role that racialized prejudices played in the club. This could have been partly because in being dependent upon the Wisconsin Union and other external sources such as the YMCA for funding, these organizations were influencing the decision-making in the club. The leadership of both organizations included members from the student clubs on campus in the 1920s named after the KKK. The Cardinal also reported on how the Wisconsin Union exercised its executive power to hinder international students’ fight for “self-determination and meaningful programs” by vetoing certain proposals put forth by the International Club. [61] Moreover, it is also likely that allowing the participation of American-born students further privileged white people’s stereotypical perceptions of communities of color in the club. That said, it is still unclear to what extent this policy enabled the participation of Black and brown Americans, and Indigenous students, including students of color from Pacific Island nations.
The International Club at UW Madison is not just a relic of the past. It is a part of the university’s historical exclusion of Black and brown people. Their presence is authorized, even celebrated, only to the extent that it does not really disrupt or even threaten white supremacy. A desire to promote justice and peace amongst all people led 16 international students to establish the International Club in 1903, “irrespective of race.” [62] Yet, time and time again, they failed to realize how racism prevented the realization of that goal, even just within the organization, because of their unwillingness to deal with its prevalence and centrality in the very foundation of the US. They drew attention to many political issues of their time through various programs like the debate forums, but because of their ignorance or callousness, these events ended up being quite problematic. The club’s existence finally became a problem for the university as well in the late 60s and early 70s when the broader student movements throughout the world pushed the club to start encouraging conversations in racial justice and anti-colonial policies.
This period was rife with student protests and activism across US campuses in resistance to violence funded or initiated by the US government. As the university’s official representative of foreign students on campus, the International Club responded to the moment by deciding to take a “moderate approach” to geopolitical issues. [63] This refusal to “take a side” and remain “apolitical” as such significantly shaped the contradictions in the club which, while claiming to represent all international students, disregarded the fact that for many of these students, their ability to survive was a political issue itself.
Universities as institutions often suppress resistance, and intimidating international students has recently been a favorite tool in their arsenal. It shows how easily and willingly the university can and will cause irreparable harm to dissenters who are more at risk of police violence and deportation if the protest continues. International students of color are already aware of this risk of being deported in resisting the university and showing their solidarity with other oppressed communities within and outside of the US. This threat is much more heightened in the current political climate because of the new social media screening policies which require visa applicants to list every single one of their social media accounts used in the past five years and make them “public” for review. Subject to constant surveillance within and outside the US, international students know all too well that even speaking out against carpet bombing of a people on one’s private social media account can end up being your one-way ticket out of the US or prevent you from being able to enter the country in the first place. After all, they’ve witnessed it happen over and over again.
What would a present-day community of international students mean in the face of these very real risks? What would it mean to show up for each other and for other marginalized people when UW Immigration and Customs Enforcement is at your doorstep or your neighbor’s doorstep? What do we do when they detain one of us for posting or liking something on social media? Can we be empowered to find each other, build coalitions while remaining mindful of our differences, and take action to sustain our broader communities? Or do we just (continue to) keep our heads down and “mind our own business” if ICE stops one of us? Is a community of international students even possible, or an unrealizable and hollow concept given our varied perceptions of what is at stake for each of us?
[1] N.A., “International Club.” September 1950. International Club of the University of Wisconsin. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[2] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 16
[3] N.A., “International Club.” September 1950. International Club of the University of Wisconsin. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[4] N.A., “Board or Room,” The Daily Cardinal, February 10, 1925, UW Digital Collections.
[5] On p. 8 of the “50 Years of World Fellowship” booklet (1953), it says 16 foreign and two American students. But on p.7 of the “A Guide To International Fellowship” (1947), and booklet from September, 1950, it only mentions 16 students.
[6] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 8
[7] N.A., “International Club Wisconsin Union.” 1941. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[8] Nestingen, Donald, University of Wisconsin International Club: A Guide To International Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1947), page 5; N.A., “International Club Wisconsin Union.” 1941. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[9] N.A., “International Club Wisconsin Union.” 1941. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[10] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 8
[11] Ibid., page 5, 6
[12] Ibid., page 18
[13] Ibid., page 18, 19
[14] Ibid., page 18
[15] Padover, Saul K. quoted in “Brotherhood, The Year Round.” Focus, Vol III, no. 3, March 1954. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024; N.A., “AW. C’MON.,” The Daily Cardinal, Nov 15, 1960, UW Digital Collections.
[16] In International Club Collection, “International Club Photographs, Group Photographs 1945-1951,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on February 2, 2025.
[17] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 10
[18] Ibid., page 14
[19] N.A., “International Club.” September 1950. International Club of the University of Wisconsin. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[20] N.A., “Club House Fund Loaned to Needy Foreign Students,” The Daily Cardinal, October 4, 1921, UW Digital Collections.
[21] Nestingen, Donald, University of Wisconsin International Club: A Guide To International Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1947). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 9.
[22] N.A., “An Invitation To The New Foreign Students.” 1963. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[23] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 20.
[24] Betty Willoughby, “Letter to Dean James H. Herriott,” April 14, 1958. In International House records, 1951-1958, Series 19/2/6/13, Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 16, 2024.
[25] Walter Ezell, “International Club Expanding in Scope,” The Daily Cardinal, July 10, 1970, UW Digital Collections.
[26] Daniel Schwartz, “Union Structure: Hard Barrier to Move,” The Daily Cardinal, December 16, 1970, UW Digital Collections; Diane Carman, “Union denies a vote to International Club,” The Daily Cardinal, November 12, 1971, UW Digital Collections.
[27] Sandra Ozols, “Internat’l Club Victim of Union Council,” The Daily Cardinal, October 24, 1972, UW Digital Collections.
[28] Susan Moseley, “Campus Life is Frustrating, Isolated for Students,” The Daily Cardinal, November 11, 1970, UW Digital Collections; ” N.A., “Plight of Foreign Students,” The Daily Cardinal, November 17, 1970, UW Digital Collections.
[29] David Weisbrod, “In a World by Themselves,” The Daily Cardinal, Fall Registration, 1971, UW Digital Collections.
[30] N.A., “International Club Gets More Money,” The Daily Cardinal, December 2, 1971, UW Digital Collections.
[31] The Wisconsin Union Quarterly, April-May, 1975, UW Digital Collections
[32] Wisconsin Alumnus, Volume 86, Number 2, 1985, 7, UW Digital Collections
[33] International Student Services. n.d. “The History Of ISS.” Accessed December 12, 2024. https://iss.wisc.edu/about/the-history-of-iss/
[34] N.A., “An Invitation to the New Foreign Students.” 1963. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[35] Camacho, Keith L., and Setsu Shigematsu, eds. 2010. Militarized Currents: Toward a Decolonized Future in Asia and the Pacific. University of Minnesota Press, page xx
[36] Kramer, Paul A. 2006. The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines. University of North Carolina Press.
[37] Ibid., page 177, 296
[38] Ibid., page 178
[39] Ibid., 101; Stratton, Clif. 2016. Education for Empire: American Schools, Race, and the Paths of Good Citizenship. University of California press, page 101
[40] Said, Edward W. 1995. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. Reprinted with a new afterword. Penguin History. Penguin Books, page 3
[41] Rebecca M. Blank Center for Campus History (CCH). n.d. “Student Life.” Sifting and Reckoning. Accessed October 11, 2025. https://reckoning.wisc.edu/student-life/.
[42] Ad-Hoc Study Group. 2018. Report to the Chancellor on the Ku Klux Klan at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://news.wisc.edu/content/uploads/2018/04/Study-Group-final-for-print-April-18.pdf.
[43] Badger Yearbook, 1911, page 422
[44] N.A., “Board or Room,” The Daily Cardinal, February 10, 1925, UW Digital Collections.
[45] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 16
[46] Ibid., 6; Nestingen, Donald, University of Wisconsin International Club: A Guide To International Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1947). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 11.
[47] N.A., “Boor Hunt Feature of Novel Carnival,” The Daily Cardinal, April 27, 1921, UW Digital Collections; N.A., “Ten Nations To Be Depicted In Club’s ‘Revue’,” The Daily Cardinal, July 29, 1921, UW Digital Collections.
[48] N.A., “Ten Nations to be Depicted in Club’s ‘Revue’,” The Daily Cardinal, July 29, 1921, UW Digital Collections.
[49] N.A., “Foreign Students Meet Tomorrow,” The Daily Cardinal, October 25, 1928, UW Digital Collections.
[50] Ibid.
[51] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 19.
[52 Ibid., page 19
[53] Ibid., page 15
[54] Ibid., page 15
[55] N.A., “International Club Wires Resolution to Arms Parley,” The Daily Cardinal, November 12, 1921, UW Digital Collections.
[56] N.A., “Nigerian Freedom to be Heralded in Union Tonight,” The Daily Cardinal, September 30, 1960, UW Digital Collections.
[57] Padover, Saul K. quoted in “Brotherhood, The Year Round.” Focus, Vol III, no. 3, March 1954. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 4
[58] Kent, Howard, International Club of the University of Wisconsin: 50 Years of World Fellowship. (University of Wisconsin, 1953). In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024, page 16
[59] N.A., “Foreign Student Denies Charges,” The Daily Cardinal, March 29, 1929, UW Digital Collections.
[60] Ibid.
[61] N.A., “Plight of Foreign Students,” The Daily Cardinal, November 17, 1970, UW Digital Collections.
[62] N.A., “International Club Wisconsin Union.” 1941. In International Club Collection, “International Club publications, programs, and correspondence 1908-1963,” Box 1, Accessed at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Archives, Steenbock Library, on October 2, 2024.
[63] Walter Ezell, “International Club Expanding in Scope,” The Daily Cardinal, July 10, 1970, UW Digital Collections.